The Etruscan People: An Ancient Civilization of Italy
The Etruscans were an influential ancient civilization based in Etruria, Italy, located between the Tiber and Arno rivers and the Apennine Mountains. Their urban culture flourished in the 6th century BCE, laying the foundation for many elements later adopted by the Romans.
Origins and Formation
The origins of the Etruscans have long been debated. Herodotus suggested they descended from Anatolian settlers around 800 BCE, while Dionysius of Halicarnassus believed they were native to Italy. Modern research has shifted focus from origins to the cultural development of the Etruscan civilization, which was already thriving by the 7th century BCE.
Expansion and Influence
The Etruscans built powerful city-states and expanded their influence across northern and central Italy, as well as into the Po Valley and Campania. They founded cities like Bologna (Felsina) and Capua, and their conquests brought them into conflict with Greeks, Carthaginians, and other Italic tribes. The Etruscans played a crucial role in shaping early Roman culture, influencing its religion, architecture, and political symbols such as the fasces and the toga.
Decline and Legacy
Etruscan dominance began to wane after their defeat by the Greeks at Cumae in 524 BCE and the eventual rise of Roman power. Rome absorbed Etruscan territories through a series of conflicts, starting with the fall of Veii in 396 BCE. By the 1st century BCE, Etruscan culture had been largely assimilated into Roman society.
Cultural Contributions
Etruscan art, particularly their frescoes, sculptures, and elaborate tombs, provides a vivid glimpse into their sophisticated society. Their religious rituals and the practice of divination influenced Roman spiritual traditions. Even culinary contributions, like the origins of focaccia bread, are attributed to the Etruscans.
While their political independence faded, the Etruscans left a profound mark on Roman civilization and, by extension, the broader development of Western culture.
The Foundation Myth of Rome
Although Greek historians didn’t seriously document Rome until the Pyrrhic War, they were aware of the city long before that time. True to their custom of linking foreign peoples to their own legendary heroes, such as Jason, Heracles, or Odysseus, Greek writers from the 5th century BCE onward invented over 25 different myths to explain Rome’s origin. One of the earliest and most accepted versions, by Hellanicus of Lesbos, tells the story of the Trojan hero Aeneas, who escaped the Greek destruction of Troy. After wandering the Mediterranean for years, Aeneas and his followers settled in central Italy, where they intermarried with the local population, eventually becoming the Latins.
Although the connection between Rome and Troy is not historically accurate, later Romans were so flattered by this prestigious mythical ancestry that they incorporated it into their own history. Roman historians knew the republic began around 500 BCE, based on their annual list of magistrates. They believed that before the republic, Rome was ruled by seven kings, and by using Greek genealogical methods, they estimated the regal period began around the 8th century BCE. Ancient historians had differing opinions on the precise date of Rome’s foundation, ranging from 814 BCE (according to Timaeus) to 728 BCE (according to Cincius Alimentus). By the end of the republic, the commonly accepted date for Rome’s founding was 753 BCE, and the republic’s beginning was placed in 509 BCE.
Roman historians connected the fall of Troy, traditionally dated to 1184 BCE, to Rome’s foundation by creating a series of fictitious kings descended from Aeneas. These kings supposedly ruled Alba Longa, a Latin town, for 431 years (1184–753 BCE). The last of this royal line, the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, were said to have founded Rome on the Palatine Hill. According to the myth, the twins, believed to be sons of the god Mars, were abandoned in a basket on the Tiber by the king of Alba. They survived with the help of a she-wolf and later overthrew the tyrant. The brothers quarreled during the founding of Rome, and Romulus killed Remus. This story is a variation of a widespread Mediterranean folktale involving many historical figures, including Sargon of Akkad, Moses, Cyrus the Great, Oedipus, and the Greek twins Neleus and Pelias.
The Regal Period (753–509 BCE)
Romulus, considered Rome’s first king, was a later invention by ancient historians. His name, which wasn’t even proper Latin, was designed to explain the city’s name. His reign was depicted as filled with typical city-founder deeds, establishing Rome’s political, military, and social institutions and waging war against neighboring states. Romulus was also said to have shared his power with a Sabine named Titus Tatius, possibly the name of an early real king of Rome, though little is known about him in later accounts.
The next six kings’ names were remembered by the Romans, but few reliable details were available about their reigns. Historians attributed various innovations to these kings, often inaccurately. The reigns of the first three kings after Romulus remain little more than names, but the last three kings left more concrete historical records that can be partially verified through archaeological evidence.
After Romulus, the peaceful reign of Numa Pompilius, who was credited with creating Rome’s religious institutions, followed. His connection to divinity was suggested by his name, which the ancients linked with the Latin word numen (divine power). Numa was succeeded by Tullus Hostilius, whose reign was marked by war, likely due to the later interpretation of his name as suggesting hostility. Ancus Marcius, thought to be Numa’s grandson, combined religious reforms with military actions.
Archaeological evidence for early Rome is sparse and often contradictory, as extensive excavations are difficult due to later buildings occupying the same sites. However, the evidence confirms that Rome started as a village of thatched huts on the Palatine Hill, dating back to the 10th or 9th century BCE, rather than the mid-8th century. Rome’s settlement expanded to other hills, such as the Esquiline, and by the 7th century BCE, the Palatine settlement grew into a town of artisans with stone houses. This indicates trade and influence from Etruscan and Greek cultures.
Rome’s transformation into a city took place under its last three kings: Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (Tarquin the Elder), Servius Tullius, and Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud). The two Tarquins were likely from Etruria, and their reigns marked a period of major city-building, including temple construction and urban infrastructure that aligned with Etruscan urbanization.
Early Roman Republic (509–280 BCE)
The transition from monarchy to republic was traditionally marked by the overthrow of the last king, Tarquinius Superbus, whose reign was described as tyrannical. The story goes that his son violated the noblewoman Lucretia, and her subsequent suicide sparked an uprising that led to the expulsion of the Tarquins. This narrative, however, was likely influenced by Greek ideas of tyranny and constitutional evolution. Some modern scholars argue that the monarchy ended as a result of military defeat and foreign intervention, particularly from the Etruscan king Lars Porsenna of Clusium. According to this theory, the Romans, after losing to Porsenna, expelled their king but chose not to restore the monarchy.
The early republic was a time of significant political development, with new institutions and offices created to meet Rome’s growing military, political, and social needs. This period saw the gradual struggle between the patricians, who held political power, and the plebeians, who initially had few rights. Over time, the plebeians gained legal equality through political agitation, ultimately achieving a more balanced power structure. However, this struggle, as depicted by Livy and other historians, oversimplifies a complex set of social, political, and economic changes. The distinction between patricians and plebeians was likely more fluid than ancient accounts suggest, and by the late republic, both groups were part of the Roman nobility.
The exact origins of the patrician-plebeian divide are still debated by modern scholars. Some suggest it emerged gradually during the early republic, while others argue it was less significant by the time of the later republic, when the distinctions between the two groups had largely faded.
The Consulship
The later Romans regarded the abolition of the kingship and its replacement by the consulship as the beginning of the republic. The religious duties of the king were taken over by a priest-king (rex sacrorum), who held office for life, while the king’s military authority (imperium) was transferred to two annually elected magistrates called consuls. These consuls were the primary magistrates of the republic, and their names were used for dating years in Roman history. The consuls were military leaders who commanded Rome’s armies and were elected by the centuriate assembly, which consisted of Roman citizens organized into voting groups based on their military roles. The two consuls held equal power, a principle that extended to nearly all Roman public offices, ensuring a balance of authority, as one consul could limit the actions of the other.
The first plebeian consul is said to have been elected in 366 BC. Prior to this, all consuls were considered patrician, and the struggle between the plebeians and patricians for access to this office was a central aspect of the conflict between these two groups. However, evidence suggests there was no formal ban on plebeians holding the consulship, and the distinction between patrician and plebeian families may have become fixed only by the middle of the 4th century BC. The law of 367 BC, which mandated that one consul must be plebeian, likely aimed to ensure equal representation for both groups in the highest office.
The Dictatorship
In times of military crisis, Rome occasionally needed a single commander to ensure decisive leadership. To address this, the office of dictator was created in 501 BC. The dictator held supreme military power for a maximum of six months and was appointed during emergencies to unify command. The dictator also appointed a subordinate cavalry commander, known as the master of horse (magister equitum). This office was constitutional and distinct from later autocratic dictatorial positions, such as those held by Sulla and Caesar, which arose through military usurpation.
The Senate of Ancient Rome
The Senate may have existed during the monarchy as an advisory body to the king, composed of elderly men whose wisdom was valued in early Roman society. By the time of the republic, the Senate consisted of members from Rome’s leading families, and its size is estimated to have been about 300 during the middle republic. Senators were collectively called patres et conscripti (“the fathers and the enrolled”), indicating a possible distinction between patricians and plebeians within the Senate. While the Senate’s role was theoretically advisory, in practice it wielded substantial power due to the prestige of its members. It advised magistrates and the Roman people, and its decrees, senatus consulta, were implemented by magistrates or referred to the people for legislation.
The Popular Assemblies
Roman citizens participated in two primary assemblies: the centuriate assembly and the tribal assembly. These assemblies elected magistrates, passed laws, and made significant decisions, with voting restricted to adult male citizens.
The centuriate assembly was military in nature and met outside the sacred boundaries of Rome, in the Field of Mars. It elected consuls and other magistrates with imperium (e.g., praetors, censors), and it handled war and peace decisions. The assembly was organized by wealth, with richer citizens holding greater voting power. The wealthiest classes, the first class and the knights, dominated the assembly, which reinforced the political influence of the nobility.
The tribal assembly, on the other hand, was civilian and met within the pomerium, the city boundary. It elected magistrates without imperium (e.g., plebeian tribunes, plebeian aediles, quaestors) and passed laws on various matters. The tribal assembly was more democratic, as its voting was organized by geographic tribes, and its size increased with the expansion of Roman territory.
The Plebeian Tribunate
A key moment in the struggle between plebeians and patricians was the creation of the plebeian tribunate. In 494 BC, discontented plebeians, facing military service, economic hardship, and harsh debt laws, withdrew from Rome to the Sacred Mount, where they elected their own officials for protection. In response, the Senate allowed the plebeians to elect tribunes, who became sacrosanct, meaning that any harm to them could be punished by death. Initially, there were two tribunes, but their number grew over time. The tribunes could veto actions by magistrates, intercede on behalf of citizens, and prosecute officials. Though the tribunes were often from aristocratic families, the office allowed them to champion populist causes.
The Law of the Twelve Tables
The first systematic codification of Roman law came in 451 BC with the Law of the Twelve Tables. The plebeians, seeking written laws to protect themselves from abuses by magistrates, pressured the Senate to establish a code. After a series of turbulent events, the law was inscribed on twelve bronze tablets and displayed in the Forum. While the Twelve Tables addressed a range of legal matters, including debt, inheritance, and property rights, it did not address consular imperium as traditionally claimed by annalists. The law became the foundation of Roman private law, though many of its provisions were later modified.
Military Tribunes with Consular Power
In 445 BC, the office of military tribunes with consular power was established, seen as a compromise between the Senate and the plebeians. These tribunes, who could be either patricians or plebeians, were elected to perform the duties of consuls, such as commanding armies. This new office allowed plebeians access to military command, although consuls were still more frequently elected. The office of military tribune lasted until 367 BC, when it was replaced by the regular consulship.
Social and Economic Changes
The reforms of 367 BC, including the reestablishment of the consulship and the limitation on land ownership, reflected Rome’s growing military and territorial needs. Laws like the Licinio-Sextian Rogations aimed to reduce economic inequality, particularly by limiting the amount of public land any citizen could hold. Rome’s expansion also necessitated changes in its legal and administrative systems, including the introduction of silver coinage and reforms to legal procedures, such as the public display of the calendar in 304 BC.
The political and social changes of the 4th and 3rd centuries BC also saw a series of laws aimed at addressing economic problems, including debt relief. These reforms, along with the creation of a more inclusive legal system, reflect Rome’s transformation from a small city-state into a dominant power in the Mediterranean world.
The Latin League
Though the Latin cities were politically independent, their shared language and culture fostered cooperation in areas such as religion, law, and warfare. All Latins could participate in common religious practices, including the worship of deities like the Penates of Lavinium, Juno of Lanuvium, and Diana, celebrated in Aricia and Rome. Intermarriage among Latins was unrestricted, and they enjoyed equal rights in trade, legal matters, and voting when visiting other Latin towns. A Latin who settled permanently in another town gained full citizenship. Although conflicts between Latin states occurred, they united for mutual defense when threatened, contributing military forces proportionally. Leadership of their combined forces was entrusted to a single individual, typically from one of the Latin towns. Occasionally, the Latins founded colonies on enemy territory, which became new, independent Latin states with the same rights. The term “Latin League” is used by modern scholars to refer to this network of rights and responsibilities.
Roman historians claim that Rome’s last three kings transformed the city into a dominant force within the Latin League, though this may be exaggerated. Rome’s rise in the 6th century was significant, but other towns like Tibur, Praeneste, and Tusculum also held considerable power. The first treaty between Rome and Carthage (509 BC) described a Roman sphere of influence stretching 70 miles south of the Tiber River, a boundary the Carthaginians were warned not to encroach upon.
Rome’s rapid growth in the 6th century was largely due to its Etruscan rulers. However, when Etruscan influence waned around 500 BC, Rome’s fortunes faltered. After the fall of the monarchy, Rome faced threats from surrounding hill tribes like the Sabines, Aequi, and Volsci, who sought new lands due to overpopulation. In the 5th century, Rome’s primary concern was assisting the Latin League in defending against these invaders, though later accounts, particularly those by Livy, exaggerated the scale and tactics of the conflict, attributing later military methods to the 5th century.
Roman Expansion in Italy
By the late 5th century, Rome began to expand into Etruscan territories while continuing to defend itself against the Volsci and Aequi. The notion that Rome’s expansion was purely defensive, a view promoted by Roman historians, is now considered largely discredited. While early Roman wars, particularly those against the Gauls, could be seen as defensive, much of Rome’s aggressive expansion was driven by its own ambitions. Roman consuls often sought wars for personal glory, and many in the centuriate assembly voted for war in hopes of gaining wealth from conquests.
Though the Romans did not fight for religious reasons, they frequently used religious rituals, such as the solemn declaration of war by the fetial priests, to justify their actions. According to Roman religious law, wars had to be just, meaning fought in self-defense, but in practice, Rome often provoked other states into declaring war first, allowing them to claim the moral high ground.
Rome’s first significant war against an organized state was the conflict with Fidenae (437–426 BC), which resulted in the annexation of its territory. The next major war was the decade-long struggle with Veii (406–396 BC), an important Etruscan city. The Roman conquest of Veii, after a prolonged siege, increased Roman territory by 84 percent, with the annexation of four new rustic tribes. Despite this victory, Rome faced a major setback when a Gallic tribe sacked the city in 390 BC. The defeat was a humiliating blow, but it spurred the Romans to fear and respect the Gauls.
The next 40 years of Roman history were marked by slow recovery, culminating in a treaty with Carthage in 348 BC, which restored Rome’s position in Latium and increased its influence over the region.
The Samnite Wars
Rome’s rise in Italy accelerated in the 4th century BC, especially after the Samnites united their tribes to resist Roman expansion. The First Samnite War (343–341 BC) resulted in Rome’s acquisition of Campania, including the key city of Capua. This victory also marked the beginning of Rome’s policy of absorbing allied cities after they had been defeated in war. Campania became a significant source of manpower and resources for Rome.
The expansion into Campania provoked the Latins to resist, leading to the Latin War (340–338 BC). Rome emerged victorious, absorbing most of Latium and granting citizenship to its inhabitants. The Latin League was dissolved, but the legal rights previously held by Latins, such as the Latin right (ius Latii), were retained by Rome.
In the following decades, Rome continued its expansion, focusing on the Samnites. The Second Samnite War (326–304 BC) was particularly brutal, with Rome suffering significant defeats at the Caudine Forks (321 BC) and Lautulae (315 BC). Despite these setbacks, Rome adapted by adopting new military tactics, such as the manipular system of formation, which proved crucial for fighting on rugged terrain. During this period, Rome also began to establish a rudimentary navy and build military roads, such as the Via Appia, to support its expanding empire.
The war with the Samnites eventually ended in Roman victory, and Rome extended its influence further, establishing colonies and forcing neighboring cities to become allies. The conclusion of the Great Samnite War (304 BC) marked a decisive shift in the balance of power in Italy, with Rome now firmly in control of central Italy. In the same period, Rome’s third treaty with Carthage (306 BC) solidified Rome’s dominance over Italy, as Carthage recognized Rome’s sphere of influence across the entire peninsula.
The Third Samnite War (298–290 BC)
The Third Samnite War was the Samnites’ final attempt to preserve their independence. They formed an alliance with the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls, but despite this formidable coalition, Rome emerged victorious at the Battle of Sentinum in 295 BC. Rome spent the remaining years of the war dismantling Samnite resistance, leading to the Samnites being bound to Rome through a series of alliances.
The Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC)
Rome spent much of the 280s BC dealing with unrest in northern Italy. However, tensions escalated when a conflict broke out between the Greek city of Thurii and a Samnite tribe. Thurii called for Rome’s assistance, and Rome’s naval presence in the region led to conflict with the Greek city of Tarentum. Tarentum sought military aid from King Pyrrhus of Epirus, a brilliant general renowned for his military strategies.
Pyrrhus arrived in 280 BC with 20 elephants and 25,000 soldiers, defeating the Romans at Heraclea. He stirred Samnite revolts and offered peace terms that would have restricted Roman power to central Italy. Although the Senate was initially hesitant, the courage of Appius Claudius, an elderly and blind senator, inspired Rome to continue the fight. Pyrrhus won another battle at Asculum in 279 BC, but his losses were so severe—7,500 casualties—that the term “Pyrrhic victory” was coined, as these victories were seen as detrimental.
Pyrrhus eventually left Italy to assist the Greeks of Sicily against Carthage. He returned to Italy in 275 BC but was defeated at Beneventum. He withdrew to Greece, while Rome turned its attention to eliminating resistance in Italy and capturing Tarentum in 272 BC. By then, Rome had become the undisputed master of Italy, with a broad belt of territory stretching from coast to coast, and Latin colonies scattered across the peninsula. Other Italian peoples were bound to Rome through bilateral alliances requiring military service.
Rome’s successful military campaigns solidified its military ethos and expanded its manpower. It was also forced to develop new political, military, and legal systems to manage conquered peoples. The Pyrrhic War proved that Rome’s civilian army could outlast and defeat professional mercenaries.
The Middle Republic (264–133 BC)
The First Punic War (264–241 BC)
Rome’s growing influence brought it into conflict with Carthage, which controlled much of the western Mediterranean. Rome’s interference in Sicily, a region under Carthaginian influence, triggered the First Punic War. The war began when Rome became involved in a conflict between the Greek city of Thurii and the Samnites, with both sides appealing to Rome for help. This led to Roman intervention in the region, which angered Carthage.
Rome initially lacked a strong navy but quickly built a fleet, surprising the Carthaginians by defeating them in 260 BC at the Battle of Mylae. Rome then made an audacious move, sending an expedition to Africa in 256 BC, but this failed. The conflict continued in Sicily, where the Carthaginians were increasingly confined to their western strongholds. Rome eventually defeated Carthage’s fleet off the Aegadian Islands in 241 BC, securing a peace settlement in which Carthage evacuated Sicily and paid an indemnity, although it remained an independent power.
The Second Punic War (218–201 BC)
Following the First Punic War, Carthage rebuilt its power in Spain under the leadership of Hamilcar Barca and his son Hannibal. After Hannibal’s attack on the Roman-allied city of Saguntum in 219 BC, war with Rome became inevitable. Hannibal’s subsequent march across the Alps and victories at Trebbia, Trasimene, and Cannae stunned Rome. He gained support from much of southern Italy, including Capua, but failed to break Rome’s resolve or sway the loyalty of Latin cities and central Italy.
Despite his successes, Hannibal’s strategic ambitions were thwarted. His attempt to forge alliances, such as with King Philip V of Macedonia, fell short. Rome’s delaying tactics under Fabius Maximus prevented Hannibal from achieving a decisive victory. In Spain, the Romans, led by Scipio Africanus, drove the Carthaginians from the region, and Scipio’s invasion of Africa forced Hannibal to return to defend Carthage.
At the Battle of Zama in 202 BC, Scipio decisively defeated Hannibal, ending the war. Carthage was left independent but forced to surrender its territories outside modern Tunisia, disband its fleet, and pay a hefty indemnity over fifty years. Numidian king Masinissa, an ally of Rome, gained significant territory in the peace settlement. Rome’s victory marked its ascension as the dominant power in the western Mediterranean.
The aftermath of the war had a profound impact on Rome and Italy, influencing the constitution, economic and social life, religion, and intellectual thought. This period marked a pivotal moment not only for Rome but for the entire ancient world. By this time, no contemporary power could threaten Rome’s existence. While the Hellenistic monarchies of the East were still prosperous, they crumbled under Roman dominance, akin to a house of cards. The Germanic and other barbarian tribes in the north posed potential threats, as did the rising Parthian empire beyond the Euphrates. However, for centuries, Rome kept such dangers at bay.
The Rise of Roman Hegemony in the Mediterranean
Rome’s expansion into the Eastern Mediterranean began even before the Second Punic War, with its campaigns against the Illyrians across the Adriatic. Afterward, during the war, King Philip V of Macedonia allied with Carthage in an effort to halt Rome’s expansion, but after his peace agreements with Rome and the Aetolians, he lost his influence. Post-war, the Roman Senate sought to manage relations with Philip, even though the Roman assembly had initially hesitated to declare war. Historians speculate on Rome’s motivations, with some suggesting it was driven by philhellenism or fear of a secret alliance between Philip and Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire. However, the evidence points to Rome’s consistent desire to enforce its dominance on more distant neighbors, particularly through military engagement, as seen in the Second Macedonian War (200–196 BCE).
The war concluded with a decisive Roman victory at Cynoscephalae in 197 BCE under the command of Titus Quinctius Flamininus, who proclaimed the freedom of the Greek cities at the Isthmian Games. Despite this proclamation, Roman troops remained in Greece, leading to more intervention in Greek affairs and the eventual dominance of Rome in the region.
Rome’s Interaction with the Seleucids and Aetolians
Rome’s influence expanded as Antiochus III, king of the Seleucid Empire, sought to regain territories in Anatolia and Thrace. Despite initially attempting diplomacy, Antiochus allied with the Aetolians and entered Greece. However, his ambitions were crushed by Roman legions in 191 BCE at Thermopylae. After his return to Asia, Rome waged war on him, leading to his defeat at Magnesia in 190 BCE. The subsequent Treaty of Apamea (188 BCE) imposed harsh conditions on the Seleucid Empire, significantly reducing its power. In the wake of the war, Rome strengthened its alliances with states like Pergamum and Rhodes, rewarding them with territory, while also punishing those like the Aetolians who had opposed Roman interests.