The Manchu are an ethnic group originally from Manchuria (modern-day Northeast China) and its surrounding areas, who played a pivotal role in Chinese history. They conquered China in the 17th century and ruled for over 250 years as the Qing dynasty. While the term “Manchu” emerged in the 16th century, their roots trace back to the Tungus peoples, with the Even and Evenk also descending from this group. Their ancestors were known by various names in ancient Chinese records, such as Donghui, Sushen, Yilou, Wuji, and Momo. In the 10th century, they were referred to as the Juchen (or Nüzhen in Pinyin), and their kingdom, the Jin dynasty, controlled northeastern China until its fall to the Mongols in 1234.
After centuries of retreat, the descendants of the Juchen reemerged and adopted the name Manchu, reclaiming control over Manchuria. They expanded southward, capturing Beijing in 1644, and by 1680, the Qing dynasty was firmly established over all of China. The Manchu ruled with considerable strength until the early 1800s, but their power waned significantly thereafter. Despite the Qing dynasty’s collapse in 1911/12, the Manchu left an indelible mark on Chinese governance and culture.
Linguistically, the Manchu belong to the Manchu-Tungus subfamily of the Altaic languages, which spread as various tribes moved westward, occupying regions from northeastern Manchuria to Siberia. Historically, the Manchu people were hunters, fishers, and gatherers, though they eventually adopted agriculture and animal husbandry. One of their most notable customs was the braided pigtail, or queue, which they imposed upon the Chinese during their rule as a symbol of loyalty.
Despite their dominance, the Manchu made minimal efforts to force their customs on the Chinese, instead encouraging their people to retain their language and culture. Intermarriage between the two groups was discouraged, yet over time, the Manchu assimilated, adopting Chinese language and traditions. By the end of the 20th century, the use of the Manchu language had all but disappeared, though the Chinese government continues to recognize the Manchu as a distinct ethnic group, with millions still residing in the northeast of China.
The Qing dynasty itself marked a period of vast territorial expansion and cultural consolidation, though its later years were marred by corruption, uprisings, and foreign invasions. The dynasty’s influence extended across a vast empire, increasing China’s territory threefold. It was under the Qing that China’s economy was integrated into global trade, and many facets of traditional Chinese art, culture, and architecture flourished. However, by the early 20th century, internal and external pressures led to the dynasty’s downfall.
The Qing emperors also championed the arts, with porcelain and painting reaching new heights. Artists, particularly in the fields of literature and music, adapted to a more individualistic style, fostering the rise of Peking opera. Despite the Qing’s eventual fall, the cultural legacy they left, especially in visual arts and literature, continues to influence China to this day.
Manchuria from the Early 1900s
In the late 19th century, foreign powers, particularly Russia and Japan, began vying for influence in Manchuria, viewing it as a land of imperial opportunity. The rivalry over the Liaodong Peninsula ignited when Japan, victorious in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95, demanded China cede the peninsula. However, Russia, backed by France and Germany, pressured Japan into relinquishing this claim. Subsequently, Russia, through strategic manipulation, obtained a 25-year lease on the Liaodong Peninsula in 1898, gaining control over the critical rail links connecting Dairen (Dalian) and Port Arthur (Lüshun) to the Chinese Eastern Railway. The ensuing clash of interests between Russia and Japan over Manchuria and Korea escalated into the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05. Following its defeat, Russia ceded all southern Manchurian interests to Japan.
After the 1911 Chinese Revolution, Manchuria came under the control of the local warlord Zhang Zuolin. He was compelled to grant Japan substantial concessions in exchange for their military backing. Japan’s aggressive diplomacy, particularly the Twenty-One Demands of 1915, pressured China to extend Japan’s lease on the Kwantung territory for 99 years and granted Japan sweeping civil and commercial privileges in Manchuria. During the Chinese Civil War, Japan maintained significant influence in southern Manchuria, leveraging its Kwantung Army.
In 1928, Zhang Zuolin was assassinated by the Japanese after his overreaching ambitions clashed with their interests. His son, Zhang Xueliang, who leaned more toward patriotism, sided with the Nationalist government in Nanjing. On September 18, 1931, Japan launched a military attack on Chinese forces in Shenyang, swiftly occupying the city. Unable to resist due to weak resources and a fragile political base, the Nationalists allowed Japan to control all of Manchuria within five months.
On March 9, 1932, Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo, composed of the three historical Manchurian provinces. The last Qing emperor, Puyi, was installed as the “chief executive” and later as emperor of the new state. While Manchukuo appeared to be a Chinese-run entity, it was heavily manipulated and controlled by Japan, which transformed the region into an industrial and military base to fuel its expansion in Asia. By the end of World War II, Manchuria had become the most industrialized area in China.
After Japan’s defeat in 1945, Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin demanded the restoration of Russia’s former rights in Manchuria as part of the agreement for Soviet entry into the Pacific War. Soviet forces entered Manchuria on August 9, 1945, and by August 15, Japan had surrendered. The following day, Puyi was captured by the Soviets, who looted Manchuria of its resources. The Soviet occupation created significant challenges for the Nationalist government, as Chinese communist forces, strengthened by the Soviet-backed guerrillas, took control of much of the region. Despite initial setbacks, the communists gained momentum, eventually defeating Nationalist forces by the end of 1948, marking the beginning of the Nationalists’ loss of mainland China in 1949.
In 1946, the communists initiated land reforms, redistributing land to peasants and eliminating the power of landlords. Industrial reconstruction began, and by the First Five-Year Plan (1953–57), Northeast China, or Manchuria, became a focal point for industrial development. Today, it remains a key industrial region of China.
Banner System
The Banner system was a military and administrative framework developed by the Manchu tribes in the early 17th century to manage their empire. Established by Manchu leader Nurhachi (1559–1626), the system began with four military companies, each composed of 300 men, identified by colored banners—yellow, red, white, and blue. Over time, the system expanded to include additional banners, eventually comprising 24 units. These units not only served as a military force but also performed administrative functions such as taxation, conscription, and population registration. The banners were organized into regiments and companies, and they became the foundation of the Manchu conquests, including the establishment of the Qing dynasty.
In addition to the original Manchu banners, Mongol and Chinese banners were incorporated as the Manchu expanded their empire, ultimately creating a mixed force that helped secure their control of China. However, by the early 18th century, after the Qing dynasty’s consolidation, Emperor Yongzheng took control of all eight Manchu banners, centralizing power.
The bannermen, considered a noble class, enjoyed privileges such as land, food, and cloth allowances. However, they were prohibited from engaging in trade or manual labor. Over time, as peace settled across the Qing empire, the military strength of the banner forces deteriorated, and they struggled to protect the dynasty during internal rebellions. By the late 19th century, the banner system was largely ineffective.
Manchu Language
The Manchu language, part of the Manchu-Tungus group, was historically spoken by the Manchu people in Manchuria and served as the court language of the Qing dynasty. However, by 1995, fewer than 70 speakers remained, all elderly and living in Heilongjiang province. Manchu is known for vowel harmony, which groups vowels into classes, and for its verb structure that does not distinguish person or number. The language also features gender distinctions through vowel alternation, such as “ama” (father) and “eme” (mother). The Manchu script, based on Mongolian writing, has been in use since the 17th century.
Jin Dynasty
The Jin dynasty (1115–1234), founded by the Juchen (or Jurchen) tribes of Manchuria, ruled a vast empire in northern China and Inner Asia. Originally subjects of the Khitan-led Liao dynasty, the Juchen overthrew their overlords with Chinese Song support, eventually establishing their own state. They expanded south, pushing the Song dynasty beyond the Huai River, and maintained a dual-administration system: a Chinese-style bureaucracy and a tribal state to manage Inner Asia’s nomadic tribes. The Juchen retained their ethnic identity, using their own alphabet and prohibiting Chinese customs within their military. However, by 1234, the Jin dynasty fell due to an alliance between the Mongols to the north and the Song to the south.
The history of China spans thousands of years, offering a rich tapestry of events and figures that have shaped its cultural, political, and social landscape. With its vast landmass, China covers nearly one-fourteenth of the world’s surface, making it almost as large as Europe. It is also one of the most populous countries, rivaled only by India, which surpassed China in population in 2023, according to UN estimates.
For much of its history, China developed its culture with minimal outside influence, with the notable exception being the introduction of Buddhism from India. This relative isolation allowed for the flourishing and refinement of Chinese civilization but left it vulnerable when confronted by technologically advanced foreign powers in the mid-19th century. The resulting challenges led to a century of decline, which culminated in a revolution in the early 20th century. By 1949, China established a communist government, fundamentally altering global political dynamics, positioning China as one of the most influential nations today.
Prehistoric China
Archaeological Foundations
The roots of Chinese archaeology date back to the 1920s, a period of intellectual and political reform. During this time, scholars began questioning the legendary figures credited with founding Chinese culture, such as Shennong, the Divine Farmer, and Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor. Western archaeologists and paleoanthropologists also contributed to the scientific study of prehistoric China, leading to the establishment of the Academia Sinica in 1928. This allowed Chinese scholars to undertake their own archaeological research. Though major excavations were delayed by the Sino-Japanese War and the civil war of the late 1940s, Chinese archaeology resumed in the mid-1970s, guided by scientific methods, leading to a significant body of work by 1979 with the formation of the China Association of Archaeology.
Fossil Records and Early Human Life
Fossil evidence in China has played a crucial role in understanding human evolution. Sites like Lantian (Shaanxi) and Zhoukoudian (Beijing) have provided significant findings, including fossils of Homo erectus, dating back over 700,000 years. These sites demonstrate the wide distribution of early humans in China. Other findings from the Middle Paleolithic era indicate connections to modern Asians, with distinct features like shovel-shaped incisors and broad noses.
Environment and Climate
During the Neolithic, temperatures in China were likely warmer than today by several degrees, with variations in precipitation. The environment varied greatly between regions, from the lush vegetation of the southern areas to the drier, more arid conditions of the northern plains.
Agricultural Advancements
By the 5th millennium BCE, staple crops like millet and rice were cultivated, with millet grown in the northwest and rice in the southeast. This agricultural foundation was supported by the domestication of animals such as pigs, dogs, and fish. The Neolithic period also saw the emergence of key crops like soybeans, tea, and mulberries, which remain staples in Chinese agriculture today.
Tool and Technological Developments
Stone tools, such as axes and adzes, became more sophisticated during the Neolithic. Regional variations in the design of these tools reflect the diverse environmental and cultural settings across China. Tools were increasingly used for farming, and by the Late Neolithic, many were symbolic, used in high-status burials without signs of wear.
Major Neolithic Cultures and Sites
The Neolithic era in China was not characterized by a single, unified culture but rather by a variety of regional traditions. Each culture contributed to the Bronze Age civilization that would emerge centuries later.
Early Neolithic
By the 10th millennium BCE, evidence from sites like Xianrendong in Jiangxi and Zengpiyan in Guangxi suggests the beginnings of Neolithic life in southern China. These sites yielded early pottery and stone tools, marking the start of a gradual transition from hunting and gathering to settled agricultural life.
Mid-5th Millennium BCE
In northern China, cultures like Peiligang and Cishan emerged, reflecting the growing importance of agriculture. These societies produced a variety of pottery, including cord-marked and painted designs. The discovery of early silk production tools in southern Hebei indicates the early beginnings of silk weaving, a hallmark of Chinese culture.
4th to 3rd Millennium BCE
By this time, painted pottery cultures flourished, especially in the northwest. The Majiayao and Miaodigou cultures produced intricate pottery with black-painted designs, which included spirals and zoomorphic figures. In the northeast, the Hongshan culture was distinguished by jade amulets and microlith tools, while in the south, the Qujialing and Daxi cultures developed sophisticated pottery, rice cultivation, and textile techniques.
Liangzhu Culture
From the 4th to 3rd millennium BCE, the Liangzhu culture in the lower Yangtze River region became known for its finely crafted jade artifacts and its advancements in agriculture, including the use of triangular plows for wetland farming. Their elaborate burials included large numbers of jade discs and tubes, reflecting the cultural importance of jade.
The evolution of these early cultures set the foundation for the rise of dynastic China and the development of its sophisticated Bronze Age civilizations. As Chinese culture and technologies advanced, these Neolithic traditions would merge, influence, and reshape the course of Chinese history.