The Tlingit people are the northernmost tribe of the Northwest Coast Indians in North America, residing along the islands and coastal lands of southern Alaska, from Yakutat Bay to Cape Fox. Their language, Tlingit, is related to Athabaskan. According to Tlingit traditions, some ancestors arrived from the south, while others migrated from the Canadian interior.
Tlingit society traditionally had a complex kinship system with three levels of organization. Every individual belonged to one of two moieties, which were large kin groups. Each moiety was divided into clans, with members tracing their origins to a common legendary ancestor. The most important unit within Tlingit society was the lineage, which was an extended family group based on maternal descent. Each lineage was essentially self-sufficient, owning specific territories, conducting ceremonies, and maintaining political independence. While cooperation between lineages was common during wartime, there was no permanent central leadership, and each lineage typically operated independently.
The Tlingit economy was primarily based on fishing, with salmon being a staple food source. They also hunted sea mammals and sometimes land mammals. Wood was the primary material for construction, and it was used to make houses, totem poles, canoes, dishes, and utensils. Permanent houses were constructed near productive fishing areas and safe canoe landings, usually along sheltered bays. These houses were used during the winter, while in summer, inhabitants dispersed to different fishing and hunting grounds. Potlatches, or ceremonial gift-giving feasts, were held to honor the death of a lineage chief.
The Tlingit population was estimated at around 22,000 individuals in the early 21st century.
Northwest Coast Region
The Northwest Coast is one of the most geographically defined culture areas in North America, stretching from Yakutat Bay in southeastern Alaska to Cape Mendocino in northern California. It is bordered by the Coast Ranges to the east, the Cascades, and the Columbia River. Although its northern, eastern, and western boundaries are well-defined by mountains and the ocean, the transition to the California culture area is gradual.
The region benefits from the warming effects of the Kuroshio current in the Pacific, which provides a temperate climate, with mild temperatures and heavy rainfall, averaging more than 160 inches annually in many areas. The coastal forests in this region are rich in coniferous trees such as spruce, fir, and cedar, and these forests support a wide variety of fauna and plant foods.
Traditional Economy and Social Structure
Northwest Coast economies were predominantly based on aquatic resources, with abundant food provided by the sea. The region’s dense forests were used for construction and tools, while the rivers and coastal waters provided resources like fish, sea mammals, and plants.
The traditional cultures of the Northwest Coast were distinguished by social stratification, despite being based on fishing and gathering. Unlike many other hunter-gatherer societies, food surpluses from fishing allowed for the development of complex social hierarchies. The “house society” system structured these cultures, where the central social unit was the house group. Each house group was composed of a few dozen to over a hundred people, who shared common resources like fishing grounds, hunting areas, and ceremonial practices.
Within a house group, individuals held varying social ranks based on their relation to a founding ancestor. Leaders, often the chief or the widow of a past chief, held significant authority and made important decisions, including when and where to fish, and who to invite to ceremonial feasts. Chiefs had substantial social and ritual responsibilities but were expected to lead with care and respect for their community’s welfare.
In the social hierarchy, commoners held a lower status, and slaves—often captured in war—held the lowest rank. These slaves had few rights and were generally used for labor, although some could rise in status through extraordinary talents. Material wealth and clothing, such as sea otter fur robes, indicated status, and certain physical modifications, such as head flattening, were practiced to mark high status.
The Tlingit, along with other tribes of the Northwest Coast, created a rich and stratified society that relied heavily on their natural resources, with complex social and ceremonial systems woven into daily life.
The social status of each house group member on the Northwest Coast was hereditary but required formal public recognition rather than being automatically inherited at birth. Such recognition was conducted at a potlatch, a significant event hosted by each group north of the Columbia River. The term “potlatch,” derived from regional trade jargon, means “to give.” A potlatch always involved inviting other houses as guests and witnesses. These events marked important transitions such as marriages, house construction, chief funerals, and the granting of adult names, titles, crests, and ceremonial roles.
During a potlatch, guests were given gifts and provided with large amounts of food, with any leftovers expected to be taken home. The social statuses of the guests were acknowledged through the distribution of gifts, which were given in order of rank, with the most prestigious gifts reserved for the highest-ranking guests. Whether hosting or attending, members of a house participated in the event, reinforcing their connection to the group.
Potlatches, while sharing core characteristics, had regional differences. In the northern provinces, a potlatch occurred as part of the chief’s mortuary rituals, during which the heir formally assumed the chief’s role. In contrast, in the Wakashan and Salish regions, chiefs would host a potlatch before their death to pass their title to a successor.
Some early anthropologists suggested that the potlatch was an economic transaction where the host expected to profit when guests later hosted their own potlatches. However, this was unlikely, as only a few high-ranking individuals could afford to hold such events, and the value of gifts given to lower-ranking guests was considerable. Prior to the fur trade, potlatches were rare, while feasts—formal but not associated with gift-giving or title-bestowing—were more common.
Subsistence, Settlement Patterns, and Housing
The Northwest Coast economy was characterized by an efficient use of abundant natural resources, particularly from the sea. Key aquatic resources included herring, smelt, cod, halibut, salmon, and gray whales. However, these resources were scattered, and specific species of salmon, such as pink and chum, were particularly valuable for preservation due to their lower fat content, making them ideal for smoking and drying. Other species, like sockeye and chinook, were either eaten immediately or dried for short-term use. In spring, other fish species, including herring and candlefish, arrived in large schools.
Water transportation was crucial for both subsistence and trade. Most groups crafted dugout canoes with varying designs suited to different tasks, including hunting marine mammals and transporting goods. Some used large, reinforced vessels for cargo, while smaller, narrower canoes were used for hunting.
During the summer, groups dispersed to various fishing and gathering sites, with smaller groups traveling between established areas. Winter was the time for village gatherings, with larger houses, especially those of higher-ranking individuals, used for potlatches, dances, and sacred ceremonies. Villages often consisted of multiple house groups, but each group retained its autonomy, even when assembling for ceremonies.
Northwest Coast houses shared a basic rectangular or square floor plan, with plank walls and roofs. In the northern regions, large houses could measure up to 50 feet wide by 55 feet long, while in the Wakashan province, houses were generally rectangular and up to 100 feet long. These houses were constructed around central pits, with cedar posts and beams forming the structure.
Technology and the Visual Arts
Woodworking was a cornerstone of Northwest Coast technology, with species like red cedar and redwood providing materials for canoes, containers, and everyday tools. Carved wooden objects included spoons, masks, totem poles, and halibut hooks. In the northern provinces, art was often low-relief carving with painted crests representing family heritage, while in the Wakashan region, art was more sculptural and bold. Coast Salish art was more abstract, focusing on geometric designs.
Weaving was also highly developed, particularly using the inner bark of cedar. This material was woven into mats, baskets, and clothing, such as rain capes and robes, often decorated with fur or wool. Twined basketry, especially waterproof baskets used for cooking, demonstrated great technical skill, and coiled baskets were a specialty of the Coast Salish.
Clothing was functional but also incorporated ornamentation such as necklaces, earrings, and other adornments made from shell, copper, or wood. In colder weather, people wore robes made from bark or pelts, while in the warmer months, men typically wore minimal clothing, with ceremonial garments being more elaborate.
Kinship and Family Life
Northwest Coast groups were primarily patrilineal, except in the northern provinces where matrilineal descent prevailed. Marriages were typically arranged to enhance social status, and children inherited the status of their higher-ranking parent. Education was formalized, with children learning proper etiquette, moral standards, and cultural traditions from elders, especially through storytelling and folklore.
Critical life events, such as birth, puberty, and death, were marked by public ceremonies. Infants and people experiencing significant life changes, such as puberty or mourning, were isolated for protection from perceived supernatural dangers, with purification rituals following this period. Death, especially of high-status individuals, was handled with significant care, often involving cremation or special burial practices.
Religion and the Performing Arts
Religious beliefs centered around the concept that salmon were sacred beings that sacrificed themselves for human sustenance. Specific ceremonies, such as the first-salmon ritual, were conducted to honor this sacrifice and ensure the salmon would return. Many groups also practiced vision quests, seeking spiritual power through personal encounters with spirit beings. These spirits bestowed special abilities, songs, regalia, and dances, with the resulting spirit dances becoming major ceremonial events.
Shamanism played a key role, with medicine men and women believed to have the power to heal or cause illness. Witchcraft was also feared, as it was believed to be used for malicious purposes.
Cultural Continuity and Change
European contact began with Russian traders in the 18th century, followed by other colonial powers such as Spain, Britain, and the United States. Although colonial trade brought new goods, the impact on indigenous culture was limited, as the people selectively integrated these materials into their existing practices. However, the introduction of items like steel blades did allow for more efficient tool-making, while axes and hatchets were initially rejected due to the required change in technique.
By the mid-19th century, numerous trading posts had been established in the region. The indigenous peoples recognized that fur traders were primarily focused on commerce rather than self-sufficiency, and, having long been engaged in trade with each other, they quickly found ways to profit from this new economic exchange. The Tlingit, for example, supplied the trading posts with fish, game, and potatoes, a crop introduced from South America through Russian trade. In 1847, the Russians purchased over 83,000 pounds of game and fish, along with more than 35,000 pounds of potatoes from the Tlingit. Other groups, such as the Tsimshian, controlled major portage routes and shipping lanes, charging fees for passage and vessel rentals, with some monopolies lasting for decades. Other indigenous groups also rented out slaves as laborers or prostitutes.
While the Northwest Coast tribes adapted to maritime trade quickly, they faced greater challenges when settlers from the eastern United States and Canada began arriving in the 1840s. Encouraged by their governments, these settlers moved into what are now western Washington, Oregon, Vancouver Island, and the lower Fraser River valley. In the U.S., the tribes were relocated to small reservations in Washington and Oregon as part of formal treaties. In British Columbia, however, no treaties were made to extinguish native land rights; undeveloped land was assumed to belong to the crown, and land transfers were private matters.
Missionaries also played a significant role in this period, beginning their work on the Northwest Coast in conjunction with settler expansion. They were successful in influencing cultural changes, teaching not only Christianity but also social customs, including etiquette, sobriety, household hygiene, and punctuality. Missionaries were responsible for the formal schooling of indigenous children along much of the coast for many decades.
The most disruptive events for Northwest Coast peoples from the late 18th century through the 19th century were epidemics of diseases such as smallpox, venereal diseases, and measles. These epidemics caused severe population declines, as the indigenous peoples had never been exposed to such illnesses before. It is estimated that between 1780 and 1900, the indigenous population of the region dropped by as much as 80%. The resulting depopulation led to shifts in social roles and status, with adoptions, multiple titles being assigned to single individuals, and other compromises made to maintain social structure. Much cultural knowledge was lost as many who would have passed it on died from the diseases.
By the second half of the 19th century, the combination of trade profits, high mortality, and social upheaval led to increasingly extravagant potlatches. Some families used potlatches to gain status, while others hosted lavish events to reaffirm their position. Spirit dancing also became more elaborate. However, missionaries and government officials misinterpreted both practices, viewing potlatches as wasteful and the spirit dances, which sometimes involved the reenactment of cannibalistic legends, as actual human consumption. As a result, potlatches were outlawed in Canada from 1884 to 1951, although they continued in secret.
In the final decades of the 19th century, the collapse of the fur trade left the Northwest Coast peoples in a dire economic situation. Dispossessed of much of their land and reliant on manufactured goods, they needed to find new sources of income. While the economic goals of the indigenous peoples differed from those of Euro-Americans, they again found ways to participate in the dominant economic system. Some began working for wages in various jobs, such as guiding prospectors, carrying cargo, cutting firewood for steamships, or working as farm and domestic laborers. The canned salmon industry, which began around the Fraser River, created a surge in wage labor opportunities.
Indigenous peoples had a deep knowledge of the region’s salmon, giving them an advantage in the early commercial salmon fishery. Initially, the fishery used simple tools and methods, with changes over time primarily involving mechanization rather than innovation in techniques. Native fishers, both men and women, learned new skills, and some became independent operators. Many, especially women, found work in processing the catch, a task they had long been familiar with. Fishing continues to be a central economic activity in the region, though it presents challenges such as seasonal income fluctuations, overfishing, and market volatility.
Despite their relative economic independence, the indigenous peoples of the Northwest Coast faced persistent discrimination. Beginning in 1912, the Tlingit, Haida, and other tribes formed political organizations such as the Native Brotherhoods and, later, Native Sisterhoods, to advocate for their rights. These organizations played a crucial role in legal battles and training in modern political processes. Despite facing discrimination, including signs that read “No natives or dogs allowed” as late as the 1940s, these groups secured several important victories, including legal rights and the eventual passage of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act in 1971, which settled land claims and established for-profit corporations to manage native lands and assets.
In Canada, the indigenous groups worked to repeal laws banning potlatches, which was achieved in 1951, and to pursue land claims. The British Columbia Treaty Commission was established in 1990 to negotiate tribal land claims, with the first agreement signed in 1999. However, progress has been slow, and many claims remain under negotiation as of the early 21st century.